Who is All Israel?

Introduction

Ever since the dawn of the church, tensions regarding law and grace have been the center of attention, and the 21st-century church is just as susceptible as the church was in 1st-century Rome. Once a Pharisee (Acts 23:6), the Apostle Paul knew all too well the struggle between obedience and freedom from the law, to the point of incessantly lamenting over his own crisis of faith (Rom. 7:8, 11, 15–20, 23). Yet as John M. G. Barclay notes, it is in Paul’s epistle to the Roman church where these ideas are brought to the forefront of his Christological exposition regarding Israel, the Jews and Gentiles, and how God’s promises “serve up the incongruity between the mercy and grace of God and the status or worth of its recipients.”¹

Paul deliberately settles on a phrase that has been a continuing discussion for centuries regarding the identity of “all Israel” in Romans 11:26. Paul claims that Gentiles, without the law, are incorporated into Israel’s commonwealth and heirs to the promises God had made to Abraham (Rom. 4:13, 17). Likewise, this Israel is guaranteed their place in God’s soteriological plan through genuine faith in the Messiah’s redemptive work (Rom. 9:1–5).

The Ethno-Religious Tensions in Rome

The ethno-religious identities of Jewish and Gentile Christians clashed during the infancy of the church. The task fell to Paul to unpack the divine mystery for both groups by demonstrating, as Barclay puts it, that “this incongruity has all along been basic to the identity of Israel, that it is presently at work in the puzzling impact of the good news, and that it will finally determine the future of Israel and of the world.”²

Upon closer examination, it is discernible that “all Israel” is a theological term referring to the remnant elect of the nation in toto. Paul’s use of the Old Testament throughout Romans builds to this conclusion: the reunification of the house of Israel with the house of Judah results from the “fullness of the Gentiles,” culminating in the return of the ten tribes under Christ, fulfilling God’s promises to Israel. God’s promises are realized in this dual mission for anyone who believes, whether Jew, Gentile, or Israelite (Rom. 1:16; 9:33; 10:4, 11; cf. John 3:16; 5:24; 6:40, 47; 11:25; 12:44; Acts 10:43; 2 Pet. 3:9; 1 John 5:1).

Paul introduces himself as a servant and apostle of Jesus, contending that his gospel was promised by God through the prophets (Rom. 1:1–2), and closes the epistle by claiming it is the revelation of a mystery “kept secret for long ages” but now disclosed (16:25–26).

Paul’s Ministry and Gentile Inclusion

When Paul visited Corinth in AD 57–58 (Acts 20:2–3), he wrote Romans as both a theological treatise asserting that Christianity is the only path to salvation for Jews and Gentiles³ and a response to Gentile arrogance toward Jewish Christians and their customs. The climactic statements of Romans 9–11, especially 11:25–27, assert that Gentiles are included in God’s promises only because of Israel.

In AD 49, Emperor Claudius expelled Jews from Rome.⁴ With Gentile Christians left in charge, Jewish converts returning from exile clashed with them over Judaic rituals. Gentiles assumed superiority, believing that under grace they did not need to observe the law. Andrew Das explains that the olive tree imagery “confronts gentile arrogance,” dismissing any “possibility of gentile superiority over the Jew.”⁵⁶ Gentiles’ freedom in grace depends on the promises made to Israel. “The gentile branches do not support the Jewish roots,” Das continues, “but rather their roots support the gentile branches.”⁷

Paul repurposes Old Testament passages to quell the conflict and affirm that under Jesus Christ, both Gentiles and Jews are heirs to God’s promises.

Redefining Israel and the True Circumcision

Although Jews and Gentiles were distinct ethnic groups, they were united in faith. Paul distinguishes between Jews and Israelites in subtle ways. For Paul, “Jews” seems to refer to an ethnic or social designation,⁸ whereas “Israel” carries a theological weight denoting God’s elect.⁹

He calls himself an Israelite (2 Cor. 11:22; Rom. 11:1) but argues that not all Israelites truly belong to Israel (Rom. 9:6). True circumcision is not of the flesh but of the heart (Rom. 2:28–29). In Romans 4, he underscores that Abraham was justified before circumcision (Rom. 4:1–3). The patriarch’s circumcision later became a sign of God’s promise, not its cause.¹⁰ Glenn Miller notes that the goal was for Abraham to be “ancestor of all who believe,”¹¹ encompassing those who were not circumcised but had righteousness reckoned to them.¹²

Gentiles were judged by an inward law (Rom. 2:14–16), and Paul’s mission was to proclaim that faith in Christ makes one an heir of Abraham’s promises (cf. Rom. 11:1; Gal. 3:25–29; Eph. 2:1).

The Hardening and Restoration of Israel

In Romans 9, Paul summarizes Israel’s history: only a remnant would be saved by grace (Rom. 9:27; cf. Isa. 10:22). The northern kingdom lost their status as God’s elect due to idolatry and were dispersed by Assyria, while Judah remained as a “light to the nations” (Isa. 42:6). Judah too became hardened, seeking righteousness by works rather than faith (Rom. 4:16; 10:3) and stumbled over Christ (Rom. 9:30–31; cf. Isa. 8:14).

Paul laments Israel’s zeal for God but rebukes them for substituting knowledge of God’s righteousness with zeal for the law (Rom. 10:1–3). Christ is the fulfillment of the law (Rom. 10:4; cf. Matt. 5:17–18), and righteousness comes only through faith (Rom. 3:26–31; 8:4; 10:9–14).

The Olive Tree and the Fullness of the Gentiles

God cut off the “natural branches” of Israel for unfaithfulness—a theme prevalent in the Old Testament (e.g., Psa. 37:9, 22; Isa. 48:18–19; Jer. 6:2; Hos. 8:1–4). But in faith, they could be grafted back in (Rom. 11:20–24). The return of Israel hinges on genuine faith (Rom. 11:23).

Paul claims that his mission to the Gentiles is God’s proclamation to the northern tribes (Jer. 3:11–12). Hosea had warned that the northern kingdom would be dispersed and become Gentiles themselves (Hos. 7:8; 8:8). They became “vessels of wrath,” only to return as God’s people—a mystery solved in Paul’s ministry.

Jason Staples observes that Gentiles are not mentioned in Jeremiah’s prophecy of the new covenant, which was promised to Judah and Israel alone.¹⁴ But Paul understood that Gentiles with the law written on their hearts were the returning remnant of the house of Israel, united with faithful Judah.¹⁷ Believing Gentiles were grafted in as wild olive branches (Rom. 11:17, 24), creating the corporate body Paul calls “all Israel.”

Ephraim’s Seed and the Nations

Michael Heiser explains that the “fullness of the Gentiles” (Rom. 11:25) points back to Jacob’s blessing of Ephraim, that he would become “a group of nations” (Gen. 48:19).¹⁹ Paul saw Gentiles as the long-lost seed of Ephraim, returning in fullness to reunite with Judah (Jer. 30:3; Hos. 1:11). G. K. Beale notes that the “multitude of men” in Zechariah 2:4 is defined in 2:11 as “many nations” joining the Lord.²⁰

Paul believed his mission was the catalyst to fulfill God’s promises: when the fullness of the Gentiles comes in, “all Israel” will be saved (Rom. 11:26).

Conclusion

Paul’s evangelistic work was a mission to the Gentiles and a restoration of Ephraim’s seed. His use of “all Israel” describes the reunification of all twelve tribes through faith in Christ. For the 21st-century church, the mandate remains: continue Paul’s efforts to fulfill the Great Commission so that God’s promises to Israel and all who believe will be realized.

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Footnotes

¹ John M. G. Barclay, Paul and the Gift (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015), 526.
² Ibid., 526.
³ Bruce M. Metzger, The New Testament: Its Background, Growth and Content (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1983), 209, 229. See also Andrew A. Das, Solving the Romans Debate (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2007), 149–202.
⁴ John Drane, Introducing the New Testament, 3rd ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2011), 14.
⁵ Andrew A. Das, Solving the Romans Debate, 260.
⁶ Ibid., 260.
⁷ Ibid., 260.
⁸ Philip la Grange du Toit, “The Salvation of ‘All Israel’ in Romans 11:25–27 as the Salvation of Inner-Elect, Historical Israel in Christ,” Neotestamentica 49, no. 2 (July 2015): 420–21.
⁹ Ibid., 421.
¹⁰ Glenn T. Miller, “Romans 4,” Interpretation 69, no. 2 (April 2015): 216.
¹¹ Ibid., 216.
¹² Ibid., 216.
¹³ Ibid., 216.
¹⁴ Jason A. Staples, “What Do Gentiles Have to Do with ‘All Israel’? A Fresh Look at Romans 11:25–27,” Journal of Biblical Literature 130, no. 2 (2011): 380.
¹⁵ Ibid., 380.
¹⁶ Ibid., 380.
¹⁷ Ibid., 380.
¹⁸ Christopher Zoccali, “And So All Israel Will Be Saved: Competing Interpretations of Romans 11:26 in Pauline Scholarship,” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 30, no. 3 (2008): 289–317.
¹⁹ Michael Heiser, The Bible Unfiltered (Bellingham: Lexham Press, 2017), 175–176.
²⁰ G. K. Beale, The Temple and the Church’s Mission: A Biblical Theology of the Dwelling Place of God (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2004), 143.

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Bibliography

Barclay, John M. G. Paul and the Gift. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015.
Beale, G. K. The Temple and the Church’s Mission: A Biblical Theology of the Dwelling Place of God. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2004.
Das, Andrew A. Solving the Romans Debate. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2007.
Drane, John. Introducing the New Testament. 3rd ed. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2011.
Heiser, Michael. The Bible Unfiltered. Bellingham: Lexham Press, 2017.
Metzger, Bruce M. The New Testament: Its Background, Growth and Content. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1983.
Miller, Glenn T. “Romans 4.” Interpretation 69, no. 2 (April 2015): 215–217.
Staples, Jason A. “What Do Gentiles Have to Do with ‘All Israel’? A Fresh Look at Romans 11:25–27.” Journal of Biblical Literature 130, no. 2 (2011): 371–390.
Zoccali, Christopher. “And So All Israel Will Be Saved: Competing Interpretations of Romans 11:26 in Pauline Scholarship.” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 30, no. 3 (2008): 289–317.